Ming-Qing Documents

Writings by Foreigners

There is an enormous amount of material written by people coming from outside a Chinese linguistic, cultural, and political sphere relevant to the study of every aspect of Ming and Qing history. Sources written by foreign observers can be put to a variety of uses by the scholar of late imperial China, especially for the Qing period. Precisely because foreigners wrote from the outside, they noticed things Chinese writers either took for granted or thought not valuable enough to record formally. The traumatic changes and destruction of the twentieth century make the writings of foreigners particularly valuable for some kinds of historical work. For example, missionary authors from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have left us richly detailed descriptions of the material contours of an everyday life that has altered beyond hope of recognition in much of China today. The social or cultural historian might well profit from reviewing what they wrote and comparing it with indigenous Chinese sources.  

The idea of comparison is very important.  Writings by foreigners are probably most valuable to the modern scholar when put in dialogue with indigenous sources. Questions to ask oneself when reading a source written by a foreign observer might be something like the following: How can this document alert me to details I might have missed in indigenous sources?  What kind of new Chinese sources can it point me to?  For example, the casual observation (by a missionary enroute to her inland post) that Sichuanese boat trackers sang loudly as they trod the narrow cliff paths hauling on hawsers might lead you to investigate whether the lyrics to any of these songs have survived.  (They have: see Igor Iwo Chabrowski, Singing on the River: Sichuan Boatmen and Their Work Songs, 1880s-1930s [Boston: Brill, 2015].)    

When using writings by foreigners in research, there are two important questions one must consider:

What kind of foreigners wrote the source(s) I want to use?

For what audience were these foreigners writing? 

Regarding the first question, foreigners went to China for a great variety of reasons: trade, missionary work, adventure, diplomacy, science. The historian must be careful to bear in mind the ways different backgrounds and goals will lead to different views and accounts of Chinese life and customs. A diplomat will think differently from a missionary or an adventurer. And just as a Korean ambassador will think differently from Lord Macartney, an Italian court Jesuit will see a very different world around him than an American Methodist preacher running a mission school in Fujian. While sources written by foreigners will mostly be in Western languages (or pre-modern Japanese/literary Sinitic in the case of Japanese and Korean sources), it is important to remember that many foreigners living in China wrote prolifically in Chinese as well. Regarding the question of audience, as with all sources, the historian must consider how the expectations and beliefs of that audience shape what is written and how it is presented.

One final consideration to bear in mind when approaching these sources is to distinguish between two related but distinct concepts: the history of China, and the history of Sinology. Some works will be more valuable for the former, and some less; but all will be valuable in telling the latter story, for the reason that, taken together, the body of material left by visitors and observers from outside the empire constitutes a major part of the archive of what the world "knew" about China at the time.

Histories

The earliest attempts by Western writers to narrate the history of China make for fascinating reading. While they are not to be relied on for their factual content, they do provide some details that are sometimes lacking in Chinese accounts. They are particularly useful for their relation of the Qing conquest and of early Qing (i.e., pre-1750) politics.  Many of these works are available online, either via Google Books or the Hathi Trust.

Juan Gonzalez de Mendoza. The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China. Rome, 1585. Hakluyt Society, 1853-54. 

For readers comfortable with Spanish and Latin, the Harvard Libraries (Houghton and Yenching) own a splendid collection of sixteenth and seventeenth-century editions of Mendoza's oeuvre, for example Historia de las cosas mas notables, ritos y costũbres del gran reyno de la China (Madrid, 1586).

Martino Martini. De bello Tartarico historia. Antwerp, 1654.

Published the same year in English as Bellum Tartaricum: The conquest of the great and most renowned empire of China, by the invasion of the Tartars; who in these last seven years have wholly subdued that vast empire.

Joachim Bouvet. Histoire de l’empereur de la Chine. The Hague, 1699.

An apotheosis of the Kangxi emperor. The frontispiece carries a splendid image of Kangxi as philosopher-king.

Jean-Baptiste du Halde. Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique . . . de l’empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie Chinoise. 4 vols. Paris, 1735.

Based largely on Zizhi tongjian, this is the first truly comprehensive history of China written in any European language. Its account of the Qing is quite rich, but it is probably most famous for the splendid maps made by J. D’Anville to accompany it. An English translation exists, published in London in 1738.

Embassies

Included in this category are memoirs left by foreigners who arrived in official or quasi-official capacities as representatives of their home countries. Korean missions, which arrived annually, were by far the most numerous.

Yŏnhaeng-nok 燕行錄 (Yanxing lu) and Chochʻŏllok 朝天錄 (Chaotian lu). 

The Yŏnhaeng-nok is a collection of variant genres of literature composed by Korean intellectuals after they visited China, mainly as a retinue of embassies to the courts of the Ming and Qing emperors. Much of the literature was composed in the form of travel diaries, but some used poems, essays, and even paintings to record their visits to China. Only a small number of works were written in Hangul (the Korean alphabet); most were composed in literary Chinese, as other literary works had been in traditional Korean society. These works are important not only for studies of Sino-Korean relations, but also for the study of China itself, as they reveal a great deal that is not available from sources published or written in China, since Korean intellectuals’ thoughts and writings generally were out of the domain of censorship of both dynasties. There is a growing body of secondary literature focused on the Yŏnhaeng-nok now available in Chinese.

Travel accounts written during the Ming period usually are called Chochʻŏllok. On the other hand, the term Yŏnhaeng-nok usually is used for those composed during the Qing period, which occupy a larger portion of the Yŏnhaeng-nok collections. Travel accounts of this kind have been collected recently and published under the joint title Yŏnhaeng-nok by Im Ki-jung. Through two publications of the collections, Im Ki-jung collected 568 different works of Yŏnhaeng-nok.

Im Ki-jung ed.,Yŏnhaengnok chŏnjip. Sŏul Tʻŭkpyŏlsi : Tongguk Taehakkyo Chʻulpʻanbu, 2001. (100 v.)

Im Ki-jung ed.,Yŏnhaengnok sokchip. Sŏul : Sangmunsa, 2008. (50 v.)

Pak Chi-wŏn 朴趾源's Yŏrha ilgi 熱河日記 (Rehe riji).

This is perhaps the most famous of the many accounts left by Korean emissaries to the Qing. This is a rich and detailed record of a visit to Beijing and Chengde by an ambassador from the Korean court on the occasion of the 80th birthday of the Qianlong emperor (1780).

Apart from official emissaries, some incidental travelers also wrote travelogues after they happened to visit parts of the Ming and Qing states. For example, Ch'oe Pu’s Pʻyohaerok 漂海錄 (Piaohai lu), provides us a detailed description of the Chinese canal system through which he and his retinue were repatriated in the middle of Ming period. The original version of this work is included in the Yŏnhaeng-nok collections by Im Ki-jung.

Ch'oe Pu, Ch'oe Pu's diary: a record of drifting across the sea, translated with introd. and notes by John Meskill. Tucson, Published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press, 1965.

Chosŏn hugi t’ongsinsa p’iltam ch’anghwajip pŏnyŏk ch’ongsŏ 朝鮮後期 通信使 筆談唱和集 飜譯叢書 (2013-2014) is an ongoing project carried out by a team of scholars from Yonsei University in Korea.

This project brings together 178 pieces of Japanese publications during the Tokugawa period (written in literary Chinese) regarding Japanese contacts and exchanges with the Korean missions sent to Japan during the Tokugawa period. Some discussions of Qing China and regional politics are included.

J.L. Cranmer-Byng. An Embassy to China: Being the Journal Kept by Lord Macartney During His Embassy to the Emperor Ch’ien-lung, 1793-1794. Archon Books, 1970.

A personal, insightful, and sometimes dramatic account of Lord Macartney’s experiences in China at the time of his fateful visit to the Qing court, which coincided with the emperor’s 83rd birthday (just three years after Pak Chi-won’s visit). Well-edited, with a very helpful index, and brimming with sharp observations on politics and customs (do not overlook the footnotes!), this is but one of a number of accounts written by members of the embassy; George Staunton (the secretary of the embassy), Aeneas Anderson (Macartney's valet), John Barrow (who managed finances for the embassy) all left their own record of events.  There are also wonderful drawings of William Alexander, who went along as the embassy's official artist.  (Fans of Jane Austen will recall the reference to Fanny's reading about the Macartney mission in Mansfield Park, and may enjoy this short essay on the subject.) 

John Barrow. Some account of the public life, and a selection from the unpublished writings, of the Earl of Macartney - volume I and Volume II, 1807; George Staunton, An authentic account of an embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China; including cursory observations made, and information obtained in travelling through that ancient empire, and a small part of Chinese Tartary, 1827.

Earlier accounts and collections of Macartney's writings, available in searchable form from the School of Oriental and African Studies and the British Library. Many other such texts are available from that collection, including Selected Letters of George Macartney (manuscript form, not searchable).

Thomas Taylor Meadows. The Chinese and Their Rebellions, viewed in connection with Their National Philosophy, Ethics, Legislation, and Administration, to which is added An Essay on Civilization and Its Present State in the East and West. London and Bombay, 1856.

Meadows, who was serving as an interpreter in the British consular service in China when he wrote this book, provides thoughtful reflections on the rebellion-stricken nineteenth-century Qing state, focusing primarily on what has come to be thought as traditional Chinese political philosophy and statesmanship. John Fairbank's outline of Meadows' life and of this work, published in 1955, remains useful. 

China: Trade, Politics & Culture, 1793-1980

A significant collection of digitized images and English-language sources on Chinese history, mostly from the British Library and SOAS, but also other British and Commonwealth institutions and Yale. Very heavy on the Qing, particularly periods of military conflict or diplomatic contact with the British, such as the Macartney mission, Opium Wars, and the Boxer Rebellion. The compilers have put considerable effort into making the materials accessible, as with the inclusion of an interactive map and extensive keywording, but the project seems unfinished, and considerable care should be taken when searching. Pay attention to romanization, and do not rely on place name searches.

 

Maritime Contact

Borao-Mateo, José Eugenio, Pol Heyns, Carlos Gómez, and Anna Maria Zandueta Nisce, eds. Spaniards in Taiwan: Documents. 2 vols. Taipei: SMC Publishing, 2001–2002. 

Includes material of the Spanish activities in and interaction with the Chinese regimes re Taiwan; starts with the first contact in 1582 and ends with the fall of the Zheng regime in 1683. 

Chang, Hsiu-Jung, Anthony Farrington, Huang Fu-San, Ts’ao Yung-Ho, Wu Mi-Tsa, Cheng Hsi-Fu, Ang Ka-In, eds. The English Factory in Taiwan, 1670-1685. Taipei: National Taiwan University, 1995.  (Not available on Hollis but available by by Borrow Direct.)

Record of the English East India Company in the Zheng Taiwan, where they set up a factory (and later another one in Xiamen when Zheng Jing reoccupied it). It is an important primary source in the study of the Zheng regime as the English dealt directly with them (and as the Zheng's documents were mostly destroyed when they surrendered to the Qing in 1683).

The Deshima [Dejima] Dagregisters: Their Original Tables of Contents. 13 vols. Leiden, Netherlands: Leiden Centre for the History of European Expansion, 1986-2010.

The English translation of the Dutch VOC dagregisters (diaries) written by the opperhoofden of Dejima from 1641-1800 (except 1670-1680, for some reasons that volume is not published). Although not a direct source on Chinese history, the opperhoofden (an opperhoofd's terms lasted only a year) recorded all the information they could collect so as to inform their successors on what had been going on before they had assumed their post, and many information related to the development in China, which came from Chinese merchants at Nagasaki.

Jiang, Shusheng 江樹生, trans. and comp. Relanzhe cheng rizhi 熱蘭遮城日誌 [Dagregisters van het kasteel Zeelandia, Taiwan, 1629-1662]. 4 vols. Tainan: Tainan shizhengfu, 2000-2011.

The Chinese translation of the dagregisters (diaries) of the Dutch VOC governor of Taiwan, from 1629 (when they were first required to write it) to the fall of Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga in 1662. N.B. unlike the opperhoofd in Dejima, the term of the governor was not yearly; though the purpose remained the same: to provide successors with information of what had happened.

Merchants

Early Dutch trade:

19th Century Euro-American Trade

Ethnography and travelers’ accounts

C.R. Boxer, ed South China in the Sixteenth Century, 1953.

Contains three early European accounts of China. The first is that of the smuggler Galeote Pereira, who was captured by Ming officials in 1549, and spent time in Fujian and Guangxi. Having spent most of his time in China as a prisoner, he had a substantial focus on the conditions of the Ming judicial system and prisons. The other two are by the Dominican Friar Gaspar da Cruz and the Augustinian Martín de Rada, who spent small amounts of time in Guangzhou and Fujian respectively in the mid-16th century. Da Cruz's book, A Treatise of China, was the first published European work on China since Marco Polo.

Andriano de las Cortes, Relación del viage, naufragio y captiverio que, con otras personas, padeció en Chauceo, reino de la gran China, con lo demás que vió en lo que della anduvó

(Seemingly available neither on Hollis nor on Borrow Direct; try inter-library loan.)

The account of a Jesuit shipwrecked in Chaozhou in 1625. De las Cortes was a prisoner for a year, and wrote a book containing descriptions of local customs, culture, and judicial institutions, accompanied by his own drawings. The account also exhibits a great deal of interest in "petty-trade" and the living conditions of the Chinese compared with Europeans of similar social standing. A French translation (Le voyage en Chine d’Adriano de las Cortes s.j. (1625) by Pascale Girard and Juliette Monberg was published in 2001. No English-language translation yet exists.

Takeuchi Tōemon. Dattan hyōryūki 韃靼漂流記. Sonoda Kazuki, ed., 1939.

Tales from a Japanese shipwreck, coincidentally in 1644. Those captured were taken to Beijing and eventually sent home via Korea. Their leader had sharp eyes.

John Bell. A Journey from St. Petersburg to Peking, 1719-1722. Glasgow, 1763.

A Scotsman in the service of the Tsar, Bell accompanied a Russian mission to Beijing. Traveling overland, he also experienced some of Qing Inner Asia.

Nicolae Milescu. Puteshestvie chrez Sibir’ od Tobol’ska do Nerchinska i granits Kitaia russkogo poslannika Nikolaia Spafariia v 1675 godu. St. Petersburg, 1882.

Joseph de Guignes (fils). Voyages à Pékin, Manille, et l’Ile de France dans l’intervale des années 1784-1801. Paris, 1808.

Evariste-Régis Huc and Joseph Gabet. Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China, 1844-46. London, 1851.  (French original Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années 1844, 1845 et 1846)

Entertaining and sometimes supercilious, this is a highly readable account of travels by Lazarist missionaries just after the Opium War.

Robert Fortune. Three Year's Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China, Including a Visit to the Tea, Silk, and Cotton Countries. 1847. and A Residence among the Chinese. 1857.  Also, Yedo and Peking : a narrative of a journey to the capitals of Japan and China, 1863.  

Written by a botanical collector for the Horticultural Society of London.

Eliza Bridgman. Daughters of China: or, Sketches of Domestic Life in the Celestial Empire. New York, 1853.

Justus Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese. 1865

By a Protestant missionary living in Fuzhou.

Mrs. Archibald Little. Intimate China: The Chinese as I have seen them. 1899.

By the wife of a British official in Sichuan.

Jose Eugenio Borao Mateo. Spaniards in Taiwan.. Taipei : SMC Publishing Inc., 2001-2002.

Letters and writings of Spanish merchants, mercenaries, and missionaries in the seventeenth century attempting to penetrate the China market. Although this collection takes Taiwan as its focus, there are many rich accounts of Fujian and the chaos in late Ming and early Qing. Reproduction of Spanish documents followed by translations into English.

Leonard Blussé, Natalie Everts, and Evelien French, eds. The Formosan encounter: notes on Formosa’s aboriginal society: a selection of documents from Dutch archival sources. Taipei : Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines, 1999.

Letters and writings of Dutch merchants and missionaries in Southern China and Taiwan in the seventeenth century. Although many of the documents chosen deal with exploration of Taiwan and aborigines, there is material on attempts to establish trading operations in Ming and Qing China. English translations mirror original Dutch on the facing page.

William Campbell. Formosa Under the Dutch. London: Kegan Paul, 1903.

Compilation and translation of Dutch writings by participants of the Dutch East India Company's doomed venture in seventeenth-century China and Taiwan. Very rich eye witness accounts of the fall of the Ming in the south by "Manchu invaders overrunning China" and dealings with Zheng Chenggong.

Trudy Russkikh torgovykh liudiej v Mongolii i Kitaj. Irkutsk: 1890.

A collection of seven travelogues of Russian merchants to Qing Mongolia in the 1880s. These reports are particularly interesting because they were written by merchants and not ethnographers, and generally give very different information. They are useful for their descriptions of towns along the route, and for charts of imports and exports between the Qing and Russian empires.

Pozdneyev, A.M. Mongolia and the Mongols. Originally published 1895, English translation: Routledge, New York: 1997.

The full text is available in Google Books. Aleksandr Pozdnyeev was a prominent Russian orientalist and scholar of Mongolian. His account provides detailed descriptions of everyday life in Mongolian towns, with a particular focus on Qing institutions.

Francis Younghusband, The Heart of a Continent. 1896.

By a British army officer, who traveled extensively in Manchuria, Tibet and southern Xinjiang (Turkestan).

Julius von Klaproth Mémoires relatifs a l'Asie. Paris: 1824.

Descriptions of Berlin-born orientalist and philologist Julius von Klaproth's travels throughout the Qing borderlands. Klaproth recorded many details of daily life. The full text is available in Google Books.

Valikhanov, Chokan Chingisovich. Sobranie Sochinenii. Alma Ata: Izd-vo Akademii Nauk Kazakhskoi SSR, 1961.

Valikhanov was a Kazakh scholar and nobleman, and one of the first native scholars of Central Asia in the nineteenth century. This is his collected works, which contain reports of his travels through Kashgaria in the 1858-1859. His writings on the political situation there are some of the most useful, if not the most accessible, on Kashgarian politics in this period.

Kuropatkin, Aleksei Nikolaevich. Kashgaria, or Chinese Turkestan: Historical and geographical sketch of the country, its military strength, industries and trade London: Thacker & Co., 1882.

This is the English translation of Kuropatkin's report on post-Yaqub Beg Kashgaria. It focuses largely on economic and military affairs. The original Russian as well as a Uighur translation are also available.

Ernest Wilson. A Naturalist in Western China, with Vasculum, Camera  and Gun. 1913

By an English botanist. Volume 1 describes his travels, volume 2 describes the Chinese use of plants in medicine and agriculture.

Japan Center for Asian Historical Records アジア歴史資料センター

Index to a large collection of documents (at least 1,000,000 files and images) produced by the Japanese government on other Asian countries, especially China, from 1867-1945. Records are from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the National Archives, and the Ministry of Defense. Records provide a description and a link to a downloadable image file of the document in .DJVU format. Interesting genres include Japanese intelligence reports on regions of the Qing empire.

Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books on Inner Asia

Digital Silk Road Project

A joint venture of Japan's National Institute of Informatics and the Toyo Bunko 東洋文庫 (Oriental Library) featuring full-text expedition records, photographs, and maps produced by Western explorers of China's western reaches during the late Qing and the Republican periods. Includes books by M. Aurel Stein, Sven Hedin, Paul Pelliot, Albert Grünwedel, Albert von Le Coq, and Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalskii, as well as photographs by George Morrison. Also listed under "Online Resources - Full Text Databases."

The Jarring Collection at the Lund University Library (Go to the library website and click on the link to the collection.)

Digitized images of documents from East Turkestan/Xinjiang collected by Swedish scholars. Most documents are in Chaghatay, Persian, or Swedish, but the majority were produced in the Qing dynasty. This is an excellent resource for the legal and social history of Xinjiang, as it includes such diverse materials as craft manuals, legal documents, contracts, religious texts, legends, records of traditional narratives, descriptions of daily life, and schoolbooks.

Swedish Missionary Project: Audio and Film Archive from Twentieth-Century Xinjiang

Includes silent films and audio recordings from the Swedish Mission, active in Kashgar, Yarkand, and Yengi Hissar, Xinjiang from 1892 to 1938.

The Travel Film Archive: Stock Footage From Around the World (Go to the website and use the sidebar to choose clips on China.)

Features about five black-and-white travel films dating from the 1920s to the 1940s and showcasing the Chinese cities of Beijing, Shanghai, and Hong Kong, as well as Japanese-occupied Manchuria.

Missionary reports

Lettres édifiantes et curieuses écrites des missions étrangères par quelques missionnaires de la Compagnie de Jésus. 34 vols. Paris, 1702-1776; new edition, 1780-83.  (The full French original is not available on Hollis, but is available online through the Bibliotheque Nationale.  For an English translation of parts relating to China, see Travels of the Jesuits into various parts of the world : particularly China and East Indies.)

Volumes 16-20 contain the main treasure trove of Jesuit writings on China, consisting of letters written back to the order in Rome and to patrons, fellow Jesuits, and others. Its contents are quite varied, dwelling at greatest length on efforts to propagate the faith, but there is much of interest to those curious about court-based activities, including the arts.

Antoine Gaubil, S.J. Correspondance de Pékin, 1722-1759. Geneva, 1970.

A gold mine of information on court politics and missionary comings-and-goings (including with the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission) in the Yongzheng and early Qianlong reigns.

For more on missionary records, see the entries under "Foreign Relations"

Arthur H. Smith (1845-1932) Village Life in China: a Study in Sociology . New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1900.

This monograph on village life may be valuable for Qing historians because it documented in texts and pictures what it was like to travel in a typical village in south Zhili. The author lived in China for 52 years as a missionary, and his other work, Chinese Characteristics, was also well-known at the time.

Marshall Broomhall (1866-1937) Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. London: Morgan & Scott, ltd, 1910.

This is a monograph on Muslims of China (Hui and Uighur), first published in 1910. Broomhall, a British Protestant missionary, who worked for China Inland Mission, provides a detailed description of his first hand observations of Muslims from various regions of China. The book also includes a brief history, maps, illustrations, photographs and monumental rubbings. His accounts of foreign Muslim envoys and scholars, who came to China to establish contacts with Chinese Muslims during his years in China, are very useful.

Diverse Writings: Administrators and Writers in the Treaty-Ports

Many Westerners took on administrative capacities that necessarily extended to attend to the governance of the treaty-ports, enclaves and non-Qing administrated regions of the 19th century. Collectively speaking, the intellectual output here constitutes a separate chapter in the history of foreign writings on China, prior to the imposition of specific standards of scholarly rigor and historical writing for those of us interested in academic publication. Some people, especially administrator's wives, often enjoyed the time and leisure in this context to support institutions and fund libraries, expeditions, etc., with the express hope of making the treaty-ports themselves the center of a new learning on China within East Asia. This tendency was particularly strong in Shanghai, where the Royal Asiatic Society, among other groups, published extensively, invited Chinese into its groups and sponsored lectures delivered by intellectuals as diverse as Hu Shi and the legendary German Sinologist Berthold Laufer. 

The history of many western institutions in China has been written, but those of the treaty-ports largely ignored until recent years, perhaps due to the resurgence of the very same societies of expats within China. The same may go for western perceptions of China in general, and there remains a huge amount of material unpublished and unappreciated in these relics of bygone imperialist days.

The most important publications to emerge from this milieu are either original scholarly works on specific institutions or newly republished memoirs, collectanea. For example, in the realm of law:

The I. G. in Peking : letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907 Eds. J.K.Fairbank et al. Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975.

The Houghton Library has the bulk of Sir Robert Hart's papers, which includes letters, memo, reports, etc.  For a link to the papers on Hollis, click here.

Clark, Douglas. Gunboat Justice: British and American Law Courts in China and Japan Hong Kong: Earnshaw Press, 2015

The author was an experienced lawyer who worked in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Seoul. The book focuses on the careers of the respective chief judges of British or American law courts in China, Japan and Korea. The reader will learn about the mechanics of empire in these regions, but may find it more interesting to look at the relationships between judges and Chinese/ Manchu officials, or the numerous incidents involving clashes of Chinese and western individuals - and ideas of law.

Bibliography

*John Wills. Pepper, Guns, and Parleys: The Dutch East India Company and China, 1662-1681 (Harvard UP, 1974).

*John Wills. Embassies and Illusions: Dutch and Portuguese Envoys to K’ang-hsi, 1666-1687 (Harvard UP, 1984).

*Min Tu-ki. “The Jehol Diary and the Character of Ch’ing Rule.” In National Polity and Local Power: The Transformation of Late Imperial China. Edited by Philip Kuhn and Timothy Brook.  Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, 1989.
* Paul Rule. “Jesuit Sources.” In Donald D. Leslie et al., eds., Essays on the Sources for Chinese History. Edited by Donald D. Leslie et al.  Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973.
* Deborah A. Sommer. “A Letter from a Jesuit Painter in Qianlong's Court in Chengde.” In James Millward et al., eds., New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde.  Edited by James Millward et al.  New York: Routledge, 2004.
* Gari Ledyard. “Korean Travelers in China over 400 Years, 1488-1887.” Occasional Papers on Korea (Joint Committee on Korean Studies of the ACLS and SSRC), no. 2 (March 1974): 142.

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